Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - Essay Example All organisms that are doing photosynthesis help all living organisms who depend on them for food and oxygen. In the chemical reactions in photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water combine with the help of sunlight to produce glucose (C6H1206 ). The chemical equation of this chemical reaction is 6CO2 + 6H2O + light = C6H12O6 + 6O2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen is released. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of photosynthesizers. There are two stages taking place in photosynthesis. These stages are the light dependent reaction or light cycle and the light independent cycle or calvin cycle. The main function of photosynthesis is to produce food and capture energy. There are also processes involved in photosynthesis. These are the production of organic carbon, glucose and starch, form inorganic carbon, carbon dioxide, with the use of ATP and NADPH produced in the light dependent reaction. This process can be seen in plants, protista or algae and some bacteria in the prese nce of chlorophyll. Light is absolutely essential to produce this reaction. On the other hand, cellular respiration is the biochemical pathway wherein cells produce energy for the chemical bonds of food molecules in order to produce energy needed to sustain life. Cellular respiration should be done by all living cells whether it is aerobic respiration which is in the presence of oxygen or anaerobic respiration. In this process, glucose is broken down into water, carbon dioxide and energy. This breakdown of food occurs in the mitochondria which releases energy. There are 4 stages involved in cellular respiration, Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Like photosynthesis, ATP is also produces in this process, occurs in all living organisms. Unlike in photosynthesis wherein sunlight is needed, cellular respiration happens all the time and no catalyst is required. Oxygen is absorbed through this process and carbon dioxide is released. In addition to this processes, energy should also be understood. So, what is energy? It is the ability to do work and make things move. According to the Law of Thermodynamics, energy can be changed but is not created or destroyed. Due the inefficiency of energy transformation, energy is lost when we do activities. This can be explained by second law of thermodynamics which says that energy is converted to heat. This means that molecules that provide chemical energy should be replaced whenever our bodies use chemical energy in cellular processes. ATP or adenosine triphosphate is also needed to be understood. ATP provides the energy needed for all biological processes. ATP is produced in the process of cellular respiration. ATP is constantly produced by our cells and consumes energy from organic molecules like glucose. When ATP is broken down, energy is released. This is the energy used in synthesizing organic molecule, pumping ions through the cell membrane and muscle contraction. This explains ho w energy from food is used. This process starts when large organic food molecules like starch and triglycerides are broken down into small biological molecules such as glucose and fatty acids. These fatty acids travels in the blood and functions as an input for cellular respiration which transfers energy into organic particles such as glucose to energy in ATP. Afterwards, ATP is used to provide energy for cellular

LEsson VII Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

LEsson VII - Research Paper Example To achieve this, it is important to understand the return on the investment of the ICT infrastructure. The IS department is also responsible for providing the operating parameters for the users of the ICT component through training, and for providing data assurance (Kawalek2007). Another responsibility of the IS department is to ensure the functionality of the infrastructure. This is achieved through proper installation and maintenance of the ICT components, developing operating applications and assisting the users in data management and software use. The information systems department is comprised of various groups namely; technicians help desk staff, business analysts and programmers. The desktop technicians are responsible for maintaining and repairing the ICT hardware equipment. This involves repairing faulty equipment and installing new equipment. Business analysts are involved in the strategic planning within an organization, and in executing plans to ensure the organization ac hieves its objectives. The programmers are involved in developing and repairing operating applications. They are also responsible for providing system applications. ... These are some of the actions I would take in response to the following irregularities on the use of the ICT equipment. If someone from the IS department notifies me that one of my employees is spending 3 hours a day writing messages on twitter, I would ask them to identify the employee that has been spending time on twitter, and send them to the management.I would also ask the IS department to suspend all the internet connections on the employee’s computer. I would then penalize the employee by suspending all internet related tasks for them over a specific period of time (Kroenke 2007). If I ask how the IS department knows about the employee and find out that it is by secretly monitoring the computer usage, I would not be against such monitoring of internet usage because the use of the internet should be for issues related to the company, and should be used for the benefit of the company (Kawalek2007). I would, however, limit the monitoring of the internet usage to only one t rustworthy staff member in the IS department or implement an application that automatically alerts the management when the user accesses certain sites. If someone from the IS department notifies me that one of my employees is sending many personal emails, and admits to reading the mails as a precautionary measure against any suspicious emails, I would be against such monitoring because it invades the privacy of the other employees. It would also be illegal because all the employees have the right to communication. Ethically speaking, it would not be correct to view the messages personally directed to another person (Kroenke 2007). I would, however, caution the employee because it is against the company’s rules to send and receive personal emails. If as an employee

Understanding The Definition Of Internationalisation Systems Commerce Essay

Understanding The Definition Of Internationalisation Systems Commerce Essay Internationalization consists of standardized products or service through globally standardized marketing and production processes that target standardized customer needs. Internationalisation can be described as the process of increasing involvement in international operations (Welch Luostarinen, 1988: 36). Another definition proposed by Calof and Beamish (1995: 116) denotes internationalization as the process of adapting firms operations (strategy, structure, resources, etc) to international environments. Kutschker and Bà ¤urle (1997) as both definitions have crucial fact internationalisation needs an overall support from the organisation as it is changing the environment to expand in various manners the process mostly consists of macro factors to evolve. 3. The Uppsala Approach in detail The Uppsala approach was an outcome of Swedish researchers (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975; Johanson and Vahlne, 1977) which focused their interest on the internationalization process. Studying the internationalization of Swedish manufacturing firms, they developed a model of the firms choice of market and form of entry when going abroad. Their work was influenced by Aharonis seminal (1966) study. (Svend and Hollensen2004) It is seen that companies begin their operations in abroad in fairly nearby market and gradually penetrated distant market. Companies should entry in new market with the export agents and sales subsidiaries. The approach specifies direct relation between market knowledge and market commitment is postulated, as knowledge can be gathered with effective use of human resources. Consequently, the better knowledge about a market can be derived, the more valuable are the resources and the stronger the market position of the firm. Uppsala approach requires general knowledge and market specific knowledge, where as market specific knowledge can be derived from practical experiences by entering the new market. However the approach stress on experimental learning as it cannot be acquired by objective knowledge (e.g., through marketing researches or reports) and must be gained mainly through direct experience. As the approach deals with experimental learning the human resource should be managed i n proper manner. It has distinguished between four different modes of entering an international market, where the successive stages represent higher degrees of international involvement market commitment. They as follow Stage 1: No regular export activities (sporadic export). Stage 2: Export via independent representatives (export modes). Stage 3: Establishment of a foreign sales subsidiary. Stage 4: Foreign production manufacturing units These four stages deal with as no regular export activities in new market and knowing the market by experimental learning which helps in utilization of resources in effective ways. Exporting through independent agent can be suitable way of entering in new market as most of the firms prefer the way of entry. Consequently, the threats and opportunities in a new market will be discovered primarily by those people who are working there. Experience generates business opportunities and constitutes a driving force in the internationalization process (Johanson and Vahlne, 1990: 33). The model is founded on four core concepts: Market knowledge, market commitment, commitment decisions and current activities. Market knowledge and market commitment at a certain point in time are assumed to affect the commitment decisions and how the activities are carried out in the subsequent period, which in its turn will influence market knowledge and market commitment at later stages. On the basis of these four concepts, and by making the assumption of instrumentalism, the model predicts that the basic pattern of firms internationalization is to start and continue to invest in just one or in a few neighbouring countries, rather than to invest in several countries simultaneously and That the investments in a specific country are carried out cautiously, sequentially and concurrently with the learning of the firms people operating in that market. Firms are supposed to enter new markets with successively greater psychic distance and the market investments develop according to the so called establishment chain. Mats Forsgren. (2000.p5) This model deals with entering new market which is nearby or investing in single country rather than making a mess. It has leapfrogging tendency which allows entering in distant market. It shows companies can learn from their past experiences and practical knowledge. In these cases, competitive forces and factors override psychic distance as the principal explanatory factor for the firms process of internationalization. Furthermore, if knowledge of transactions can be transferred from one country to another, firms with extensive international experience are likely to perceive the psychic distance to a new country as shorter than firms with little international experience it can affect the smaller firms in case of psychic distances. The approach requires long term involvement in market to gain knowledge. The approach can be cost efficient to apply at initial stage but can take long time evolve the production barriers. The approach underlies crucial importance people interest involved in the process. By sales subsidiaries it can be easy to find problems and opportunities in the market. 3.1 Advantages It deals with indirect exporting of product with help of external export agents or merchants. Low cost entry method which helps using capital in other factors quickest way of entering the new markets. Establishing foreign sales subsidiaries can help increase sales, potential customer base in market and creates market awareness about the product which identifies customer tastes and cultural factors which may change as per new market. By using foreign manufacturing unit labour cost and cost of production can be minimized. Drawbacks Occasional exporting of goods can divert customers interest. Lack of knowledge in initial phase as the exporting is done by agents or exporting merchants. Inter-organizational learning in a business network implies that deep and long-lasting business relationships facilitate the assimilation of tacit knowledge from the different factors in the market. Human resources development programmes should be to gather knowledge about market. The Uppsala Model implies that different groups at the operational level have a profound influence on the internationalization process. It is a relatively extreme bottom-up perspective, where the bottom plays the leading part and the headquarters play walk-on parts. It is not ease to apply for small firms in case of psychic distance. 4. Macro environmental forces and impact on an organisations internationalisation decision-making process. Partnerships As Partnerships and Alliances are increasing as companies realize it is not always desirable to manage all stages. These may mislead when the organisation wants go solo in the market as culture integration, domestic or international, are mentioned as the biggest challenges for alliances. Distribution channels The distribution channels may affect as carrying products to various place where there is lack roadways or long distance it may cost more than estimation cost of distribution of material to market. Technological Technology continues to exert the biggest current and future impact on organizations. At the same time the Internet and intranets are changing the way employees interact with customers and each other. It needs innovation in the technology and manufacturing process, the services should be customer friendly, fast reaction, and acceptance of change. Competitors They may create obstacles in entering the market and provide misleading informations about market to stop new firms and may create monopoly for some products. Public pressure groups These factors directly affect or impact the organization and they influence the managerial decision, the organizational goals, structure and targeted groups of customers.  Competing Political, sustainability of the Physical Environment, Advances in Science and Technology Cultural As per the new market it is hard cope up with diverse cultural factors involved, Cultural, and Religious Ideologies. Regional, cultural groups may involve in restricting the foreign companies to enter in the market to nationalise the trade. Suppliers Suppliers of raw material and various inventories for production as it may impact on cost of production and it may change from market to market factors change. 5. Example related to Internationalisation Various industries in automobile have approached this kind of strategy in strong global competition. Such as SKODA, VOLKSWAGEN, VOLVO, GENERAL MOTORS, and Productivity within the industry has risen over the years, and consumers are offered increasingly better products at lower prices. More and more manufacturers are establishing plants in countries where production costs are considerably lower and also purchasing more components there. In time, production costs for the major producers will essentially be at the same level. 5.1 Strategies Most of these companies have first started with exporting the products and then after studying market started their production in developing nations. The Volkswagen Group safeguards its future through local production operations with integrated growth in markets such as China, India and Russia. Worldwide, the Volkswagen Group has 61 production facilities in 21 countries. General motors and Skoda have their production houses in developing nations where the cost of production is less as compared to exporting the products. In case of VOLVO about 95% of the companys production capacity is located in Sweden, Belgium, Brazil and the USA. But the company is moving towards low cost of production countries such as China, India and about 22% of their production is from Brazil. Continuing to cut costs and drive out complexity in all aspects of operations. 5.2 More efficient purchasing Purchasing is another area where we have implemented changes in order to improve our cost position; mainly through better coordination at the global level they have also intensified our cooperation with suppliers in order to cut the costs of components. [But] there is a good deal still to be done. Among other things, we are increasing the share of purchases from low-cost countries. 5.3 Moving production to low-cost countries There has been change in the business model for units that could be considered as non-core operations or in which profitability was too low. [For example], instead of continuing production in the US and EUROPEN nations, which was less and in some cases non profitable, they have started to out-source their products from the manufacturers in China and Brazil and India. Maintaining competitive production in the changing the business models. It is also important to continue relocating production from high-cost to low-cost countries. Most of companies goals are too achieved by 2012. Sources: Companies website: www.volvo.com/trucks,www.gm.com www.volkswagen.com/annualreport, www.new.skoda-auto.com 6. The Process of Internationalisation Internationalisation fundamentally alters the price-setting strategies of domestic economic agents. This is true for agents operating in product markets, factor markets and financial markets. At a micro level, internationalisation directly alters pricing behaviour by deepening product and factor markets. More potential buyers and sellers imply greater competition and a reduction in excess returns. At a macro level, internationalisation also has the potential to change the incentives faced by public policy makers (David Gruen and Geoffrey Shuetrim 1994.P.312) From the above definition it can be derived that trade between two or more nation where there is potential buyers and sellers of good in which the pricing behaviours may alter from product and various factors involved in market which directly or indirectly benefits consumers .The factors involved in these process may vary from place to place but to enter new market knowledge is essential. It can be complex as policy and regulations change as per the market. It can make potential market for customers. There are various trade unions to promote international trade such as WTO World Trade Organisation, EU European union , ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations, NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement ,AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area, COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. They encourage the trade within the members union. 7. Main challenges in Internationalisation The informal trade barriers for internationalisation are such as lack of information on business opportunities and weak contract enforcement. The Financial burden such as exchange rate risk, political risk and credit risk as they may change as per the market secure local trade. Foreign regulatory environment can change the norms of trade for the industries. The lack of domestic support structure in way of financial support, advice by responsible people can make a change. Cultural and linguistic barriers cannot be changed as we have seen in case of various fast food companies e.g.: K.F.C in India and Japan. The geographic distance between nations can make impact on their trade system. There must be two way communications among countries members which are involved in the system. As the market changes there has to be innovation in the product which suits to the market. Absence of specialised labour in work force can be challenging impact on organisation in internationalisation of market. There has to promotion of networks to gather information about new market. The border zones and cross-border cooperation in various nations the cross-border situation is critical most of the times these may impact on system. 8. CONLIUSION This report is made to analysis the internationalisation is widely seen to be the dominant tendency of our time and it is very complex process and not easy to apply in practical. There various macro aspects have affect the decision making process of organisation. These factors can be taken under control by the firms. According to the report it is specified that after using the processes there can proper utilization of resources the organisation can minimize the cost of production. The internationalisation is challenging process with changing markets and foreign regulatory environments. Moving production to low-cost countries is effective factor in internationalisation as it can be efficient utilization of investment in new market. There are various organisations which help in the process as WTO, EU, and ASEAN.

Nursing Ethics: Patient Abandonment Essay -- Nursing Case Study

This case study examines a case of an LPN who became ill while about halfway through her shift and chose to go home. This LPN was assigned to care for five patients in an obstetrical ward, four of which were considered stable. The fifth patient was awaiting an obstetrical consultation when the LPN became ill and vomited. At this time, she notified the other nurses and, subsequently, the charge nurse that she needed to leave due to illness. The charge nurse instructed her to notify her supervisor prior to leaving the facility; however, the LPN chose not to do so and went home. Her reasoning in not notifying her supervisor as she was instructed was that she feared that the supervisor would ask her to go to the emergency room for care. The LPN testified that she did not want to pay for an emergency visit and that she intended to make an appointment with her family doctor early that same day. The facility terminated the LPN’s contract and also reported her to the state boa rd of nursing for patient abandonment. As a judgment, the board of nursing suspended here nursing license pending a psychological examination and fined her $1000 for abandoning her patients. In this paper, we will examine the viewpoints of the LPN, the charge nurse, and the nursing supervisor as they relate to the Nurse Practice Act and the board of nursing. While the art of nursing has been around for centuries, the United States enacted the first nursing laws in 1903. The first nursing acts where developed as a response to conflict between nursing roles and physician roles. Nursing Practice Acts are enacted by each state’s legislature. Texas enacted the Nurse Practice Act in 1909. These acts are broad in regards to the practice of nursing, so the reg... ...ent’s needs and rights ahead of her own and ultimately do the right thing by her clients. Works Cited McDonald, Mackay & Weitz, llp,(2009). The texas board of nursing. Retrieved from http://www.healthlicensedefense.com/nurseshtml The Texas Board of Nursing,(2009). Nursing practice act. Nursing peer review, nurse licensure compact, & advanced practice registered nurse compact. Austin, TX Texas Board of Nursing, . (2004, February 1). Rules and regulations. Retrieved from http://www.bne.state.tx.us/nursinglaw/rr.html Wilson, N.R. (2011). Legal issues and the school nurse. Retrieved from http://staffweb.esc12.net/~mbooth/school_nurses/New_Nurse_Orientation_Manual/Willson_Nancy_Roper_%20Legal%20Issues%20and%20the%20School_Nurse_7-14-091.pdf Wright, L.D. (2011, February 8). Nursing jurisprudence. Retrieved from http://www.nursing-jurisprudence.com/

Advanced Organizational Behavior

Change can not be avoided because of the competition that is there today in the world of business. Businesses cannot survive without changing their strategies, products, policies, etc. according to the time and situation. However, changing anything about an organization requires a lot of planning.This is why it is necessary that a systemized method is followed when a change is being implemented as this decreases the chances of making faulty decisions. This paper aims to present a change model that I believe is ideal for every type of organization and will surely produce the positive outcomes of change.DiscussionA change model is a systemized process of implementing change in a business. Change is very crucial for every type of organization because this facilitates the organization into making better decisions.Therefore, we need a step-by-step process which leaves no room for errors or misjudgments in the entire sensitive process of implementing change. There is not a fixed ‘cha nge model’ since the nature of changes that take place also differ. This is the reason why different change models are use by organizations and they handle it differently.The change model developed in this paper consists of nine steps. This model has been selected as my change agent because this model takes into consideration each and every step of the change process from accepting the need for change to document the process and conclusions. It is very detailed and discusses every aspect of the change process which leaves a very low chance of making faulty judgments at any stage.The management and leadership can support the change model discussed by trusting the team selected for the change process with all necessary decision making. It could delegate the team members with maximum work. The input on the part of management could include ensuring that the team does not ignore any values of the organization in the entire change process by monitoring every step.The input on part of the employees and the staff which would support the change model involves them to be ready to accept the changes in operations that would be the result of the change process. It can be supportive during the entire change process by being less resistant to change and innovation. They must be motivated and must trust the process carried out by the change process team. The eight steps change model is as following.Accepting that there is a Need for ChangeThe first step to effectively implement a change is to always accept the fact that there is a need for change. This step involves creating awareness of the need for change among anyone and everyone related to the change that is occurring (Change Management Learning Center, 2008). This step helps build the energy needed to do something. It makes an organization realize the need to take action and motivates it to be strong.This strength and motivation is very necessary as change is a big step and every member of the organization must b e able to handle it. Usually various groups within an organization are not willing to accept change because this means switching from the everyday routine. This step also makes all those who are not willing to accept change ready for implementation of change.This step is the fuel needed to ignite the process of implementing change (Koberg and Bagnall, 2003). There is not much action involved in the step of accepting that there is a need for change. The organization must inform everyone related to this about the need to change and that something needs to be done about it. The organization at this point must ask itself what change is needed and why?Creating a Guiding CoalitionOnce the need for change has been accepted, the organization must move to the next step of creating a team that will guide the entire organization towards achieving this goal (Kotter, 1996).There must a team that is responsible for this as such a team would plan the process of change and ensure that the organizat ion is moving towards its goals and everything is going as it was planned initially. The organization must ensure that the people selected for the team are ideal for the situation.These people must be committed to the change process and must have the right skills necessary for the process. This team will develop the entire change process from planning to evaluation therefore whatever the team members decide will determine the fate of the company. The team members must have the skills to carry out this process in the most efficient and careful manner.Defining the NeedOnce the need for change has been realized within the organization and a team has been selected which be responsible for implementing the change within the organization, the need for change must be defined. This process is absolutely necessary because in order to effectively deal with a situation, one needs to have full knowledge about what exactly one is dealing with.Without knowing this, the team responsible for implem enting the change will never be able to approach the change with the most effective strategy. Consequently, the third step is defining the problem. This step involves identifying what needs to be change and why? It must also recognize what will be accomplished once the change is executed and everyone’s role in the entire process.Generating a Range of ApproachesThe next step involves coming up with a range of strategies that can be used to work out change. It is not sensible to concentrate on only one approach as this could lead to flawed judgments. The change process team must consider all the possible approaches before it decides on which one is the most effective as this will increase the probability of the team selecting the most effective strategy. In this step, a range of possible solutions must be generated and all of them will be considered.Selecting the Appropriate ApproachAfter all the approaches have been generated, each approach’s pros and cons will be evalu ated separately. This evaluation will help the organization prioritize the solutions according to their effectiveness. The organization will consider each one approach and will look into the cost benefit analysis of each one. It will consider how each approach will help them and what will be its drawbacks.Once this is done, whichever approach seems the most effective will be selected by the team. The criteria necessary for an approach to be appropriate largely depends on the situation, but generally, the approach must be practical, manageable, long term and of course relevant to the situation. The selected approach will then be applied to implement the change process.Implementing the ApproachThis step is the most important step in the entire problem solving process because this is actually where the change is implemented. The fact that implementing change is very sensitive has already been established and this is why this step of implementing the approach is very crucial.As a result , the change process team needs to be patient during this step which is applying the solution. A sensible approach to implementation could be to plan the approach in extensive detail before hand in order to avoid any kind of mess ups.Collecting Data Regarding the Implementation ResultThe next step is to collect data related to the implementation of the change approach. This data depends on the situation but in a case where the change was made in the marketing strategy, the data would be change in sales as a result of that change.Another example of data collected at this stage would be if the production process was changed, the data would be regarding the change in productivity as a result of the approach of the result used. This data will be used by the organization in the following steps.

Barriers to Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Essay

Health promotion has been defined as the process of enabling people to increase control over their health and to improve it. This process requires personal participation and supportive environments. For people with disabilities, however, personal participation is often limited by non-supportive environments. Lack of knowledge on how to modify programs to meet specific needs, poor attitudes, and unfriendly environments often creates insurmountable barriers to participation for many people with disabilities. While innovative medical technology has increased the life span of individuals with disabilities, little attention has focused on improving their health span. The reportedly high incidence of chronic secondary conditions seen in persons with disabilities, including pain, fatigue, low functional capacity, obesity, and depression, is often related to environmental conditions that include poor health promotion practices. Smith wrote: â€Å"People with disabilities therefore represent significant health needs and investment in health care resources, both in terms of the primary disability and secondary complications. Although the prevention of these conditions is important, of equal importance is to make living with them as healthy as possible, as many disabilities are life-long. Although health promotion may be significant in leading to lower levels of premature mortality, higher quality of life and lower health care costs for the general population, it has the potential to be even more significant for those already with a disability, whose quality of life and independence rely critically on their ability to maintain their narrow margin of health.† With the emerging concept that individuals with disabilities can improve their health in the same manner as anyone else, there is growing momentum for providing quality health promotion programs for people with disabilities. Maintaining health and wellness is especially important for people with disabilities because functional limitations that often accommodate a primary impairment (neurological dysfunction) may reduce a person’s capacity to engage in health promoting behaviors and result in a higher frequency of secondary conditions. These secondary conditions are defined as â€Å"†¦physical, medical, cognitive, emotional, or psychosocial consequences to which persons with disabilities are more susceptible by virtue of an underlying impairment, including adverse outcomes in health, wellness, participation and quality of life†. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of health promotion for people with disabilities in the areas of exercise, nutrition and health education, and to describe a health promotion service delivery model that addresses the gap in services between rehabilitation and community-based health promotion. The vast majority of people with disabilities are not obtaining the recommended amount of physical activity needed to confer health benefits and prevent secondary conditions (e.g., heart disease, obesity, and osteoporosis). In a study by Rimmer, it was found that less than 10 percent of adults with physical disabilities engaged in structured physical activity programs. A possible reason for this high level of inactivity may be linked to the number of actual and perceived barriers to exercise reported by people with disabilities. Transportation, cost of the exercise program, and not knowing where to exercise were listed as the three most common barriers. In a related study, Messent reported that the barriers to physical activity participation in adults with developmental disabilities were unclear policy guidelines in residential and day service programs; transportation and staffing constraints; limited financial resources; and limited availability of physical activity programs in the person’s community. While these external barriers may impose major limitations on exercise participation, internal barriers may also create obstacles to participation. Kinne reported that exercise self-efficacy and motivational factors were significant predictors of exercise maintenance in a group of adults with disabilities. Health disparities refer to differences between groups of people. These differences can affect how frequently a disease affects a group, how many people get sick, or how often the disease causes death. Many different populations are affected by disparities. These include †¢Racial and ethnic minorities †¢Residents of rural areas †¢Women, children, the elderly †¢Persons with disabilities While better nutritional habits are a major concern for most people with and without disabilities, there may be some specific differences in diet and nutrition guidelines pertaining to people with specific types of disabilities. Issues related to accessing healthy foods, determining food interactions with commonly used medications to control various secondary conditions ( pain, seizures, depression), and establishing specific requirements for food supplements ( vitamins, minerals, fluid intake) are all major concerns among people with certain disabilities. For example, people with spinal cord injury have a higher rate of bone loss after their injury, which increases their risk of osteoporosis. A few studies on persons with cerebral palsy and Down syndrome have also reported a higher incidence of osteoporosis. While it is the recommended daily allowance for calcium intake and vitamin D may need to be increased for certain types of disabilities to offset the rate of bone loss, recommen ded guidelines are not available. There are little data available to support this theory. There is a pressing need to conduct more research on various types of disabilities that have a reportedly higher incidence of bone loss, to determine the effects of exercise and nutritional supplements (calcium, vitamin D) in reducing or slowing the progression of this condition. Health education can have a measurable impact on empowering people with disabilities to improve their own health. For example, people with depression, manic depression, schizophrenia etc. should practice medication management with the assistance of a physician or nurse practitioner. Many states offer education classes dealing with communication with family members and the public along with skills on how to cope with mental illness. There are also cooking, cleaning, and hygienic classes and job training skills. In my experience job coaches are available to help ease the transition from unemployment to gainful employment practices. Many disabled individuals still experience discrimination from others who do not understand what mental illness is and don’t take the time to find out how to cope daily with a friend, family member or co-worker who may suffer from mental illness. In Belize Central America poverty is a big problem. In an article I read had this to say, â€Å"The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) said Tuesday that it had approved a US$15 million loan to help Belize provide better basic health care, improve secondary education and strengthen its capacity to target, coordinate and evaluate social protection programs.†These measures will help the government achieve the goals of its National Poverty Elimination Strategy,† the IDB said in a statement. It said that one-third of the country’s population lives under the poverty line and the poorest sector of society lacks adequate basic health and secondary education services. â€Å"In some southern rural areas, like the Toledo district, 79 per cent of the population is poor and 56 per cent is classified as indigent. â€Å"The IDB said that in order to strengthen primary health care for the most vulnerable sectors, the funds will support government plans to increase enrolment in the National Health Insurance (NHI) pilot program.†It will also protect the 2009-2010 budget lines needed to at least maintain NHI coverage at 95 per cent of the population in south-side Belize City and 84 percent in the Southern Region. The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) is also addressing the significant barriers to mental health care experienced by African American, Asian American and Pacific Islander, American Indian, and Latino/Hispanic populations. NAMI is developing national partnerships and strategies to overcome the crisis. There is also increasing emphasis on improving quality of health care within the existing services in the United States. To achieve quality, there must be: 1. Improved access to care for all people. 2. Appropriate and acceptable treatment plans that incorporate multidisciplinary knowledge. 3. A workforce of sufficient numbers and qualifications. 4. Agreement on indicators for health care quality. 5. Responsible practices and follow-through on the part of patients. One study of infants revealed the cost of hospitalizing premature infants, the need to improve prenatal care to women at high risk for delivering preterm or low-birth-weight infants, and the need to improve outcomes for those infant. There is still so much to be done to increase health and the quality of life in persons with disabilities and those with chronic health issues. Health promotion has been defined as the process of enabling people to increase control over their health and to improve it. This process requires personal participation and supportive environments. Reference Rimmer JH, (1999). Health promotion for people with disabilities: the emerging paradigm shift from disability prevention to prevention of secondary conditions Physical Therapy. 79(5), 495-502. Ravesloot C, Seekins T, Young Q, (1998). Health Promotion for People with Chronic Illness and Physical Disabilities: The Connection between Health Psychology and Disability Prevention Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. 5, 76-85. Thierry JM, (1998). Promoting the health and wellness of women with disabilities. Journal of Women’s Health. 7(5), 505-507. Stuifbergen, Alexa K., PhD, RN, Heather Becker, PhD, and Dolores Sands, PhD, RN, (1990). Barriers to health promotion for individuals with disabilities Family & Community Health. Smith RD, (2000). Promoting the health of people with physical disabilities: a discussion of the financing and organization of public health services in Australia Health Prom Int. 15, 79-86. 13(1), 11-22. Belize to receive IDB funds for health, education. (2009, Oct 07). BBC Monitoring Americas. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/460151112?accountid=32521